Category: Toxicology

Propofol Infusion Syndrome

ICM Case Summaries1 Comment

A 28-year-old man was involved in a high-speed road traffic accident suffering severe head injury (diffuse axonal injury) with bilateral haemopneumothoraces and pulmonary contusions. He was transferred intubated and ventilated to the neurointensive care unit from a district general hospital for intra-cranial pressure (ICP) monitoring.

He was initially managed with bilateral chest drains and conservative neuroprotective measures for difficult to control ICP. He was heavily sedated on propofol (300mg/hr), midazolam (30mg/hr) and fentanyl (300mcg/hr).

Over the next few days his temperature increased and he became increasingly hypoxic. He subsequently developed ECG changes and a echocardiogram showed right heart failure. A diagnosis of pulmonary embolism, which was confirmed on CTPA a few days later which showed evidence of a small PE. He was not anticoagulated due to neurosurgical concern regarding his head injury.

Over the next few days he developed renal failure requiring renal replacement therapy and acute liver failure with hypoglycaemia and lactic acidosis. He developed severe cardiovascular failure requiring multiple inotropes and pulmonary artery catheter guided therapy. Lipids were found to be elevated, with creatine kinase >50,000 and myoglobin found in the urine. Propofol infusion syndrome was diagnosed. Sedation was stopped and he started to make a recovery.

What are the clinical features of propofol infusion syndrome?

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Massive Propranolol Overdose

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A 35 year old male presented with massive (over 1500mg) propranolol overdose on a background of depression and anxiety. He called for help and was found alert and cardiovascularly stable by paramedics at 50 minutes post ingestion. By 80 minutes his conscious level had fallen to a Glasgow Coma Score of 11 and he had become hypotensive. He started fitting en route to hospital and lost cardiac output as he arrived at hospital. The initial cardiac arrest rhythm was broad complex slow pulseless electrical activity. After a prolonged resuscitation attempt he regained spontaneous cardiac output but never achieved cardiovascular stability and sadly died later that evening.

He was resuscitated according to standard resuscitation algorithms. In addition, several specific therapies were given in line with Toxbase recommendations1: Glucagon was administered as a 10mg slow bolus followed by a 100-150 mcg/kg/hr infusion. Insulin (actrapid) was given as a 60 unit bolus followed by a 1-2 unit/kg/hr infusion along with a glucose bolus of 0.5 g/kg followed by an infusion of 0.5 g/kg/hr. Intralipid was delivered as a bolus (100 ml 20%) followed by an infusion. Atropine 3mg was given and the adrenaline boluses were changed to an infusion at 10 mg/hr.

Cardiac arrest remained refractory until a 100 ml bolus of 8.4% Sodium Bicarbonate was administered prompting almost instantaneous restoration of circulation.

The circulation remained unstable with a broad complex bradycardia resistant to transcutaneous pacing. High dose adrenaline infusion, high dose euglycaemic insulin therapy and glucagon infusion were continued. Transvenous pacing was also ineffective and the patient sadly deteriorated into a refractory cardiac arrest from which he did not recover.

The patient regained his cardiac output when the sodium bicarbonate bolus was given. The temporal association between these two events was profound and led me to question why this therapy sits so far down the toxbase treatment algorithm.1

This case summary aims to answer: 

  1. What works in Propranolol overdose? 
  2. What doesn’t really work? 
  3. Which order should I give things?

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ICP Monitoring and Acute Liver Failure

ICP Monitoring and Acute Liver Failure

Steve MathieuLeave a comment

A 28-year-old lady presented to the medical team jaundiced with cramping upper abdominal pain and multiple episodes of vomiting over the previous day. She admitted ingesting Paracetamol 8 grams 3 days previously (staggered throughout the day) ostensibly to treat a frontal headache. She had been commenced on Citalopram 1 week previously for depression but denied taking any intentional overdose. On examination, she was slightly drowsy but GCS 15. HR 109, BP 136/92. Sats 98%on air. Her chest was clear, she was warm peripherally but jaundiced with some epigastric and RUQ tenderness on palpation. Her urine output was 10-20ml/hr.

Full Blood Count revealed Hb 152, WCC 24.7, Plats 301. She was in acute liver failure with Bil 189, AST 22970, ALT 13040, ALP 426 and coagulopathic with PT 82, APTT 72, Fib 0.7 Urea 5.7, Cr 193. Paracetamol and Salicylate were not detected. She was not acidotic with H+ 35, OCI2 3.7, pO2 17, Bic 20, BE –3. Lactate 7.1.

She was commenced on N-acetylcysteine and transferred to Critical Care. She was reviewed by the Hepatobiliary surgical team and placed on the super-urgent list for liver transplant. 

On Day 2, she became encephalopathic with GCS E3M5V5 and she was intubated and ventilated.Her PT had increased to 168 (INR >15) and she became anuric. She commenced FFP and Cryoprecipitate transfusions that improved her PT to 17, APTT 34 and Fibrinogen 1.5. An Intracranial Pressure (ICP) monitor was inserted and an opening pressure of 19mmHg was found. 2 hours post-insertion, it was noticed that her right pupil had increased in size from 2mm to 4mm and was poorly reactive. ICP remained at 16 and pCO2 4.1.

A brain CT showed a large haematoma in the right frontal region around the ICP bolt (which was not in the brain parenchyma but sitting in the skull) and mass effect with 5mm midline shift. There was also some lack of grey-white matter differentiation and sulcal effacement in keeping with diffuse oedema and mass effect.

INR was 1.7 and so further FFP was given. She was discussed with the neurosurgical registrar (in a separate hospital) who advised they would not drain at present but he would discuss with his Consultant and call back. 

Soon after, her right pupil increased to 8mm and the left to 7mm. Repeat CT brain showed slightly increased right frontal haematoma with 6mm midline shift and global oedematous cortical changes but no herniation. The ICP readings were thought to be inaccurate due to proximal placement and she was medically treated for raised ICP with hypertonic saline, mannitol and then therapeutic hypothermia. Despite this treatment, her pupils were fixed and dilated and so a thiopentone infusion was commenced.

The neurosurgeons advised that they would insert a further ICP monitor when INR <1.3 and so further FFP was given. An ICP bolt was inserted and the opening pressure was >120.

Discussions between the ICU, hepatobiliary and neurosurgical teams confirmed that she had a non-survivable injury and so this was discussed with her family. She was rewarmed, paralysis and then sedation were discontinued, brain stem death testing took place and she was extubated in the presence of her family. She died on Day 3 and was referred to the Coroner for further investigation.

What is the rationale for measuring ICP in acute liver failure?

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High Dose Insulin Infusion for Calcium Channel Blocker Overdose

ICM Case Summaries1 Comment

A 24-year-old was admitted following an intentional overdose of 10mg amlodipine tablets following an argument with his family. Approximately 10 tablets were ingested. On self-presentation two hours after the event, he was clinically stable with no haemodynamic compromise. There was no airway or respiratory compromise and a 12 lead electrocardiogram demonstrated sinus rhythm at 98 beats per minute. Both an arterial blood gas and electrolyte analysis were normal. Ionised calcium was 1.14 mol/L.

Over the following two hours he developed hypotension down to a nadir of 58/32 mmHg without change in heart rate or rhythm or the development of metabolic abnormalities. This was initially treated with intravenous fluids without significant response. A bolus of calcium chloride was administered without success; at this time he was referred to the intensive care team for assessment. Careful clinical examination revealed no other abnormality except hypotension. Neurological function remained intact and there appeared to be a vasodilated state with warm peripheries and relative tachycardia at 110 beats per minute in sinus rhythm.

The patient was transferred to the intensive care unit where an infusion of noradrenaline was commenced, rapidly escalating to a rate of 0.92 mcg/kg/min with little improvement in mean arterial pressure beyond 30-40 mmHg and relative oliguria. After consultation with the National Poisons Service, a high dose infusion of actrapid was commenced at rate of 0.5 units/kg/hour, with subsequent improvement of his haemodynamic parameters and a reduction in his noradrenaline requirement. Over the following 4 hours, both this infusion and the noradrenaline infusion were subsequently weaned off. The patient was discharged to the ward after eight hours and after assessment by the psychiatric team, from hospital the following day.

What are the clinical features of calcium channel blocker overdose and what is the role of high dose insulin infusion?Read More »

Ethylene Glycol Poisoning

Ethylene Glycol Poisoning

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A 50 year old man was found by the roadside by paramedics with a GCS of 13. On arrival he had a patent airway, but a GCS of 5 (E1 M3 V1). He had an elevated respiratory rate (30/min) and a profound metabolic acidosis (pH 6.97 pO2 16.8 pCO2 1.68 HCO3 2.8 BXS -30.8 COHb 0). The lactate was too high to be measured by the blood gas analyser and there was an elevated anion gap [(147+5.5) – (2.8+ 109) = 40.7] He was cardiovascularly stable with warm peripheries. His ECG revealed a prolonged QTc. He was intubated and 8.4% sodium bicarbonate was administered. His initial laboratory bloods showed CRP 11, white cell count 29.5 CK 2539 creatinine 213. Ethanol levels were <10 and Paracetamol and salicylate levels were within normal limits. He was given a dose of intravenous cefotaxime and his urine was sent for organic acids screening which revealed an enormous peak of glycolic acid and small increase in oxalic acid, consistent with an overdose of ethylene glycol.

After arrival in intensive care, the sodium bicarbonate had improved the pH to 7.2, with a residual lactaemia (15 as measured in the laboratory, without any interference from glycolic acid). CVVHDF was commenced. In order to inhibit futher metabolism of the ethylene glycol, 10% ethanol was commenced until fomepizole was available (an initial bolus of 800ml, followed by an infusion at 180ml/hr). Ethanol levels were monitored. Fomepizole was administered later that day abd the ethanol stopped (15mg/kg loading and 1mg/kg/hr). The renal function deteriorated despite CVVHDF (peaked at urea 28, creatinine 724 on day 4), which was continued for 5 days. Treatment for aspiration pneumonia was started in day 1 and cardiovascular support was continued (noradrenaline). Intermittent boluses of glycopyrolate were required to treat the bradycardia associated with fomepizole. A gradual improvement occurred and he had made a full neurological recovery within 2 weeks, with much improved renal function. He later admitted to drinking 250ml of antifreeze.

What are the clinical features and management of ethylene glycol poisoning?Read More »

Management of Life-Threatening Tricyclic Antidepressant Overdose

Management of Life-Threatening Tricyclic Antidepressant Overdose

Steve Mathieu1 Comment

A 44-year-old lady was brought to ED by ambulance after her partner found her drowsy in her bedroom with multiple empty packets of Amitriptyline scattered around the bed. The ambulance crew found no other medications in the immediate vicinity. Her partner had last seen her two hours previously that evening and described a history of depression, previous overdoses and chronic alcohol excess.  On arrival in ED, her airway was self-maintained but she had signs of vomitus around her mouth and smelled strongly of alcohol. Heart rate was 125, NIBP 92/38 and ECG showed sinus rhythm with prolonged PR and QRS intervals (240ms and 200ms, respectively). ABG showed a metabolic acidosis with lack of respiratory compensation, with hyperlactataemia (4.1). GCS was 9 (E2M5V2) although she appeared agitated with bilaterally dilated pupils. There was no external evidence of injury. The impression was of life-threatening Tricyclic Antidepressant (TCA) overdose within the last 2 hours along with alcohol ingestion.

What are the main features of a Tricyclic Antidepressant overdose? What treatment options are available?

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Sodium Bicarbonate in Amitriptyline Overdose

Sodium Bicarbonate in Amitriptyline Overdose

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A 40 year old man with pre-existing mental health problems presented after an overdose of 6g of amitriptyline. He was deeply unconscious and required invasive ventilation. He was commenced on bicarbonate therapy and hyperventilated to pH 7.5. Around 12 hours after admission he developed tonic-clonic seizures, a broad complex tachycardia and subsequently suffered a cardiac arrest that was refractory to defibrillation, adrenaline and amiodarone. He was given additional 8.4% bicarbonate and further defibrillation attempts and was successfully resuscitated after 90 minutes.

What is the rationale for the use of sodium bicarbonate in the management of amitriptyline overdose?Read More »

Botulism

Botulism

ICM Case Summaries1 Comment

A young female IV drug abuser presented with dysarthria, diplopia and weakness with loss of her gag reflex. She had recently had an abscess wound on her arm debrided. She was intubated for airway protection, and underwent early tracheostomy. She was treated with intravenous antibiotics and botulism antitoxin after electromyography and nerve conduction studies were consistent with a diagnosis of botulism. She was weaned from the ventilator within 2 weeks and the Health Protection Agency later confirmed the presence of botulism neurotoxin A from wound swabs.

What are the clinical features of Botulism and how is it managed?Read More »

Intralipid in Antihypertensive Overdose

Intralipid in Antihypertensive Overdose

ICM Case Summaries1 Comment

A middle aged man presented after having taken a mixed antihypertensive overdose of ramipril, amlodipine and bendroflumethiazide. He had refractory hypotension despite fluids, noradrenaline, adrenaline vasopressin and calcium infusions.  After discussion with toxicologists he was given 20% intralipid as per the AAGBI guidelines for LA toxicity. There was an immediate but transient improvement in his BP with two bolus doses of intralipid. Over the subwequent hours and days, he stabilised and weaned off his vasopressor support. There was no long-lasting organ dysfunction.

What is the evidence for the use of intralipid in the management for antihypertensive overdose?

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